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È quasi ovvio che la filosofia scientifica kuhniana preferisce la disciplina, poiché un'anomalia nel paradigma genomico sarà notata meglio da un genetista che da un neurofisiologo. Ora questo concetto sembrerebbe in contrasto con l'evoluzione epistemologica della Scienza, quindi è meglio soffermarci un minuto su di esso in dettaglio. | È quasi ovvio che la filosofia scientifica kuhniana preferisce la disciplina, poiché un'anomalia nel paradigma genomico sarà notata meglio da un genetista che da un neurofisiologo. Ora questo concetto sembrerebbe in contrasto con l'evoluzione epistemologica della Scienza, quindi è meglio soffermarci un minuto su di esso in dettaglio. | ||
==Epistemology== | |||
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| width="250" align="right" |<small>''The black swan symbolizes one of the historical problems of epistemology: if all the swans we have seen so far are white, can we decide that all the swans are white?<br>Really?''</small> | |||
| align="center" |[[File:Black_Swan_(Cygnus_atratus)_RWD.jpg|175px|center]] | |||
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| align="center" |[[File:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|203px|center]] | |||
| width="250" |<small>''Kuhn used optical illusion to demonstrate how a paradigm shift can cause a person to see the same information in a completely different way: which animal is the one here aside?<br>Sure?''</small> | |||
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'''Epistemology''' (from the Greek ἐπιστήμη, ''epistème'', "certain knowledge" or "science", and λόγος, ''logos'', "speech") is that branch of philosophy which deals with the conditions under which scientific knowledge can be obtained and the methods for achieving such knowledge.<ref><!--43-->The term is believed to have been coined by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in his ''Institutes of Metaphysic'' (p.46), of 1854; <!--44-->see Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''[https://www.iep.utm.edu/ferrier/ James Frederick Ferrier (1808—1864)]''. [[:wikipedia:James Frederick Ferrier|Wikipedia]]</ref> The term specifically indicates that part of gnoseology which studies the foundations, validity and limits of scientific knowledge. In English-speaking countries, the concept of epistemology is instead mainly used as a synonym for gnoseology or knowledge theory — the discipline that deals with the study of knowledge. | |||
Incidentally, the basic problem of epistemology today, as in Hume’s time, remains that of verifiability.<ref>[[:wikipedia:David Hume|David Hume]] (<!--47-->Edimburgh, 7 <!--48-->may 1711 – <!--49-->Edimburgh, 25 <!--50-->august 1776) <!--51-->was a Scottish philosopher. He is considered the third and perhaps the most radical of the British Empiricists, after the Englishman John Locke and the Anglo-Irish George Berkeley.</ref><ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Srivastava S | |||
| titolo = Verifiability is a core principle of science | |||
| url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioral-and-brain-sciences/article/verifiability-is-a-core-principle-of-science/D46462A598492AFDB7AFB4975A313446# | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = Behav Brain Sci | |||
| anno = 2018 | |||
| editore = Cambridge University Press | |||
| città = Cambridge | |||
| ISBN = | |||
| LCCN = | |||
| DOI = 10.1017/S0140525X18000869 | |||
| OCLC = | |||
}}</ref> | |||
The Hempel paradox tells us that each sighted white swan confirms that crows are black<ref><!--53-->Here we obviously refer to the well-known paradox called "of the crows", or "of the black crows", formulated by the philosopher and mathematician [[:wikipedia:Carl Gustav Hempel|Carl Gustav Hempel]], <!--54-->better explained in Wikipedia's article ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raven_paradox&oldid=942633026 Raven paradox]'':<br><!--55-->See {{cita libro | |||
|autore = Good IJ | |||
|titolo=The Paradox of Confirmation | |||
|opera=Br J Philos Sci | |||
|volume=11 | |||
|numero=42 | |||
|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/685588 | |||
|anno = 1960|pag=145-149}}</ref>; that is, ''each example not in contrast with the theory confirms a part of it'':<br> | |||
::<math>A\Rightarrow B = \lnot A \lor B</math> <br> | |||
According to the objection of falsifiability, instead, no theory is ever true because, while there are only a finite number of experiments in favour, there is also theoretically an infinite number that could falsify it.<ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Evans M | |||
| titolo = Measuring statistical evidence using relative belief | |||
| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26925207 | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = Comput Struct Biotechnol J | |||
| anno = 2016 | |||
| editore = | |||
| città = | |||
| ISBN = | |||
| LCCN = | |||
| DOI = 10.1016/j.csbj.2015.12.001 | |||
| OCLC = | |||
}}</ref> | |||
{{qnq|<!--58-->But it’s not all so obvious...}} | |||
...because the very concept of epistemology meets continuous implementations, like in medicine: | |||
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*'''''<math>P-value</math>''''': <br>In medicine, for example, to confirm an experiment, a series of data coming from laboratory instruments or from surveys, the "''Statistical Inference''" is used, and in particular a famous value called "significance test" (P-value). Well, even this concept, now part of the researcher's genesis, is wavering. In a recent study, attention was focused on a "Campaign" conducted on "Nature" against the concept of "significance tests"<ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Amrhein V | |||
| autore2 = Greenland S | |||
| autore3 = McShane B | |||
| titolo = Scientists rise up against statistical significance | |||
| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30894741 | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = Nature | |||
| anno = 2019 | |||
| editore = | |||
| città = | |||
| ISBN = | |||
| LCCN = | |||
| DOI = 10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9 | |||
| OCLC = | |||
}}</ref>.<br />With over 800 signatories supporting important scientists, this "campaign" can be considered an important milestone and a "Silent Revolution" in statistics on logical and epistemological aspects<ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Rodgers JL | |||
| titolo = The epistemology of mathematical and statistical modeling: a quiet methodological revolution | |||
| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20063905 | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = Am Psychol | |||
| anno = 2010 | |||
| editore = | |||
| città = | |||
| ISBN = | |||
| LCCN = | |||
| DOI = 10.1037/a0018326 | |||
| OCLC = | |||
}}</ref><ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Meehl P | |||
| titolo = The problem is epistemology, not statistics: replace significance tests by confidence intervals and quantify accuracy of risky numerical predictions | |||
| url = | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = | |||
| anno = 1997 | |||
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}}, in eds Harlow L. L., Mulaik S. A., Steiger J. H., ''What If There Were No Significance Tests?'' - editors. (Mahwah: Erlbaum, 393–425. [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Sprenger J | |||
| autore2 = Hartmann S | |||
| titolo = Bayesian Philosophy of Science. Variations on a Theme by the Reverend Thomas Bayes | |||
| url = | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = | |||
| anno = 2019 | |||
| editore = Oxford University Press | |||
| città = Oxford | |||
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}}</ref>. The campaign criticizes the too simplified statistical analyses that can still be found in many publications to date.<br>This eventually led to a discussion, sponsored by the American Statistical Association, which spawned a special issue of "The American Statistician Association" titled "''Statistical Inference in the 21st Century: A World Beyond p <0,05''", containing 43 articles by forward-looking statisticians<ref name="wasser">{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Wasserstein RL | |||
| autore2 = Schirm AL | |||
| autore3 = Lazar NA | |||
| titolo = Moving to a World Beyond ''p'' < 0.05 | |||
| url = https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913 | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = Am Stat | |||
| anno = 2019 | |||
| editore = | |||
| città = | |||
| ISBN = | |||
| LCCN = | |||
| DOI = 10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913 | |||
| OCLC = | |||
}}</ref>. The special question proposes both new ways to signal the importance of research results beyond the arbitrary threshold of a P-value, and some guides to conduct of research: the researcher should accept uncertainty, be reflective, open and modest in his/ her statements<ref name="wasser" />. Future will show whether or not those attempts to statistically better support science beyond the significance tests will be reflected in future publications<ref>{{cita libro | |||
| autore = Dettweiler Ulrich | |||
| titolo = The Rationality of Science and the Inevitability of Defining Prior Beliefs in Empirical Research | |||
| url = https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01866/full | |||
| volume = | |||
| opera = Front Psychol | |||
| anno = 2019 | |||
| editore = | |||
| città = | |||
| ISBN = | |||
| LCCN = | |||
| DOI = 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01866 | |||
| OCLC = | |||
}}</ref>. In this field too, we are on the same wavelength as the Progress of Science according to Kuhn, in that we are talking about the re-modulation of some descriptive statistical contents within the scope of disciplinarity. | |||
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{{Bib}} | {{Bib}} | ||