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Difference between revisions of "Physiological Dynamics in Demyelinating Diseases: Unraveling Complex Relationships through Computer Modeling"
Physiological Dynamics in Demyelinating Diseases: Unraveling Complex Relationships through Computer Modeling (view source)
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== Demyelinating Diseases == | == Demyelinating Diseases == | ||
There are a large number of demyelinating diseases affecting both the PNS (Figure 1) and CNS (Figure 2). The etiologies are heterogeneous, ranging from genetic disorders to metabolic, infectious or autoimmune mechanisms. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most prevalent of these disorders, with an estimated 3 million patients worldwide. Its underlying cause is uncertain but is thought to involve genetic predisposition to environmental agents<ref name=":0">Trapp B.D., Nave K.A. Multiple sclerosis: An immune or neurodegenerative disorder? Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2008;31:247–69. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094313. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref name=":1">Compston A., Coles A. Multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2008;372:1502–1517. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61620-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> and can involve immunological, responsiveness to trauma, biophysical, genetic and/or metabolic components.<ref name=":1" /> The symptoms and lesions must be multiple in both time and space. That is, there must be multiple episodes in time, involving disconnected parts of the central nervous system. It is not clear whether inflammatory demyelination is a primary or secondary event within the disease process.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Ostermann P.O., Westerberg C.E. Paroxysmal attacks in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 1975;98:189–202. doi: 10.1093/brain/98.2.189. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Twomey J.A., Espir M.L. Paroxysmal symptoms as the first manifestations of multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 1980;43:296–304. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.43.4.296. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Most treatments target the immune system or the blood-brain barrier, but managing neurological symptoms through modulation of axonal excitability also plays an important role (see below). | [[File:Jay S. Coggan1.jpeg|thumb|Figure 1: Demyelinating disorders of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). ('''A''') Primary demyelinating polyneuropathies and ('''B''') Polyneuropathies with axon damage. Abbreviations: CMT 1, 2 and 4: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease; CMTX: X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease; HNPP: hereditary neuropathy with liability to pressure palsies; AIDP: acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy; GBS: Guillain-Barré syndrome. CIDP: chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy; MGUS: monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance; POEMS: polyneuropathy, organomegaly, endocrinopathy or edema M-protein and skin abnormalities; HSAN I–IV: hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy.|500x500px]]There are a large number of demyelinating diseases affecting both the PNS (Figure 1) and CNS (Figure 2). The etiologies are heterogeneous, ranging from genetic disorders to metabolic, infectious or autoimmune mechanisms. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most prevalent of these disorders, with an estimated 3 million patients worldwide. Its underlying cause is uncertain but is thought to involve genetic predisposition to environmental agents<ref name=":0">Trapp B.D., Nave K.A. Multiple sclerosis: An immune or neurodegenerative disorder? Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2008;31:247–69. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.30.051606.094313. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref name=":1">Compston A., Coles A. Multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2008;372:1502–1517. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61620-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> and can involve immunological, responsiveness to trauma, biophysical, genetic and/or metabolic components.<ref name=":1" /> The symptoms and lesions must be multiple in both time and space. That is, there must be multiple episodes in time, involving disconnected parts of the central nervous system. It is not clear whether inflammatory demyelination is a primary or secondary event within the disease process.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Ostermann P.O., Westerberg C.E. Paroxysmal attacks in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 1975;98:189–202. doi: 10.1093/brain/98.2.189. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Twomey J.A., Espir M.L. Paroxysmal symptoms as the first manifestations of multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 1980;43:296–304. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.43.4.296. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Most treatments target the immune system or the blood-brain barrier, but managing neurological symptoms through modulation of axonal excitability also plays an important role (see below). | ||
[[File:Jay S. | [[File:Jay S. Coggan 2.jpeg|left|thumb|Figure 2: Demyelinating disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). Abbreviations: MS: multiple sclerosis; ADEM: acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; PML: progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy; HTLV-1: human T-lymphotropic virus 1; PRES: posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome.]] | ||
Demyelinating disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). Abbreviations: MS: multiple sclerosis; ADEM: acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; PML: progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy; HTLV-1: human T-lymphotropic . | |||
=== Clinical Assessment of Multiple Sclerosis === | === Clinical Assessment of Multiple Sclerosis === | ||
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Disease-modifying drugs are critical for stopping or at least attenuating the demyelination process, but so too is it critical to manage the symptoms arising from whatever demyelination has already occurred. Ion channel modulation is increasingly promising with the advent of new ion channel blockers such as Ampyra (K-channel blockade).<ref>Göbel K., Wedell J.H., Herrmann A.M., Wachsmuth L., Pankratz S., Bittner S., Budde T., Kleinschnitz C., Faber C., Wiendl H., et al. 4-Aminopyridine ameliorates mobility but not disease course in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Exp. Neurol. 2013;248:62–71. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.05.016.[PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Krishnan A.V., Kiernan M.C. Sustained-release fampridine and the role of ion channel dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. 2013;19:385–391. doi: 10.1177/1352458512463769. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Potassium channel blockade is intended to enhance axon excitability. The problem is that such interventions, while effective in treating negative symptoms and restoring function, tend to exacerbate positive symptoms.<ref>Bowe C.M., Kocsis J.D., Targ E.F., Waxman S.G. Physiological effects of 4-aminopyridine on demyelinated mammalian motor and sensory fibers. Ann. Neurol. 1987;22:264–268. doi: 10.1002/ana.410220212. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Conversely, treating positive symptoms such as spasms with anti-epileptics like carbamazepine, for example, can exacerbate negative symptoms.<ref>Sakurai M., Kanazawa I. Positive symptoms in multiple sclerosis: Their treatment with sodium channel blockers, lidocaine and mexiletine. J. Neurol. Sci. 1999;162:162–168. doi: 10.1016/S0022-510X(98)00322-0. [PubMed] </ref> In fact, blocking Na+ channels not only reduces positive symptoms, it may also be neuroprotective (because Na+ accumulation causes Na+/Ca2+ exchange mechanisms to load neurons with Ca2+, which is excitotoxic)<ref>Mattson M.P., Guthrie P.B., Kater S.B. A role for Na+-dependent Ca2+extrusion in protection against neuronal excitotoxicity. FASEB J. 1989;3:2519–2526. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> (Figure 3) but these benefits come at the expense of negative symptoms. Therefore, and especially in a patient exhibiting a mixture of positive and negative symptoms, treatment options are restricted. | Disease-modifying drugs are critical for stopping or at least attenuating the demyelination process, but so too is it critical to manage the symptoms arising from whatever demyelination has already occurred. Ion channel modulation is increasingly promising with the advent of new ion channel blockers such as Ampyra (K-channel blockade).<ref>Göbel K., Wedell J.H., Herrmann A.M., Wachsmuth L., Pankratz S., Bittner S., Budde T., Kleinschnitz C., Faber C., Wiendl H., et al. 4-Aminopyridine ameliorates mobility but not disease course in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Exp. Neurol. 2013;248:62–71. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.05.016.[PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Krishnan A.V., Kiernan M.C. Sustained-release fampridine and the role of ion channel dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. 2013;19:385–391. doi: 10.1177/1352458512463769. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Potassium channel blockade is intended to enhance axon excitability. The problem is that such interventions, while effective in treating negative symptoms and restoring function, tend to exacerbate positive symptoms.<ref>Bowe C.M., Kocsis J.D., Targ E.F., Waxman S.G. Physiological effects of 4-aminopyridine on demyelinated mammalian motor and sensory fibers. Ann. Neurol. 1987;22:264–268. doi: 10.1002/ana.410220212. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Conversely, treating positive symptoms such as spasms with anti-epileptics like carbamazepine, for example, can exacerbate negative symptoms.<ref>Sakurai M., Kanazawa I. Positive symptoms in multiple sclerosis: Their treatment with sodium channel blockers, lidocaine and mexiletine. J. Neurol. Sci. 1999;162:162–168. doi: 10.1016/S0022-510X(98)00322-0. [PubMed] </ref> In fact, blocking Na+ channels not only reduces positive symptoms, it may also be neuroprotective (because Na+ accumulation causes Na+/Ca2+ exchange mechanisms to load neurons with Ca2+, which is excitotoxic)<ref>Mattson M.P., Guthrie P.B., Kater S.B. A role for Na+-dependent Ca2+extrusion in protection against neuronal excitotoxicity. FASEB J. 1989;3:2519–2526. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> (Figure 3) but these benefits come at the expense of negative symptoms. Therefore, and especially in a patient exhibiting a mixture of positive and negative symptoms, treatment options are restricted. | ||
[[File:Jay S. Coggan 3.jpeg|center|thumb|600x600px|Mechanisms of demyelination-related Neurodegeneration. Demyelination can result prorgressively in ionic disequilibria, energy crisis, conduction block and eventually neurodegeneration. ('''A''') a normal node of Ranvier with juxtaparanodal, paranodal and nodal regions intact, depicting <math>Na^+,K^+,Ca^+</math>ions flowing through their respective channels with mitochondria supplying the ATP for energy-dependent <math>Na^+,K^+ ATP</math>ases that re-establish the ion gradients depleted by ion flux through channels. Numerous different ion channels are present in the axon but only a small subset is depicted here; ('''B''') partial demyelination results in dispersal of nodal ion channels, energy insufficiency and disequilibria of ion gradients; ('''C''') complete demyelination can result in conduction block and axonal degeneration due to the accumulation of intracelluar <math>Ca^+</math> that results from energy crisis and disruption of ionic balances. Abbreviations: <math>K_v1</math>: potassium channel type 1; <math>Na_{v}1.6</math> and <math>Na_{v}1.2</math>: sodium channel types 1.6 and 1.2; <math>Na^+,Ca^+</math> Exchanger: <math>Na^+,Ca^+</math> exchange pump; <math>Na^+,K^+ ATP</math>ase: ATP (energy)-dependent <math>Na^+,K^+</math> exchange pump; CASPR1: contactin-associated protein 1 (interaction molecule between myelinating cell with axon); <math>NF55</math>: neurofascin 155 (predominant interaction molecule between myelin and axon at paranodal axo-glial junction).]] | |||
Mechanisms of demyelination-related Neurodegeneration. Demyelination can result prorgressively in ionic disequilibria, energy crisis, conduction block and eventually neurodegeneration. (A) a normal node of Ranvier with juxtaparanodal, paranodal and nodal ... | |||
The above discussion raises the important point that although much ado has been made about immune mechanisms, their connection with clinical changes is largely correlational. One must consider the intermediary effects on axonal function, namely the primary and secondary (compensatory) changes in axon excitability, in order to appreciate how neurological function is altered. Those changes are not simple and direct consequences of demyelination but, instead, suggest that axonal physiology itself changes in response to demyelination. Some of those changes are adaptive whereas others are maladaptive, or perhaps adaptive changes can become maladaptive as the situation (myelination status) evolves. If changes in axonal physiology dictate the manifestation of various symptoms, then symptom management will largely fall on treatments that aim to manipulate axon physiology. Strategically developing such treatments require a deep, mechanistic understanding of axonal excitability and its regulation. | The above discussion raises the important point that although much ado has been made about immune mechanisms, their connection with clinical changes is largely correlational. One must consider the intermediary effects on axonal function, namely the primary and secondary (compensatory) changes in axon excitability, in order to appreciate how neurological function is altered. Those changes are not simple and direct consequences of demyelination but, instead, suggest that axonal physiology itself changes in response to demyelination. Some of those changes are adaptive whereas others are maladaptive, or perhaps adaptive changes can become maladaptive as the situation (myelination status) evolves. If changes in axonal physiology dictate the manifestation of various symptoms, then symptom management will largely fall on treatments that aim to manipulate axon physiology. Strategically developing such treatments require a deep, mechanistic understanding of axonal excitability and its regulation. | ||