Difference between revisions of "Draft:Introduction - es"

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==Ab ovo<ref><!--9-->Latin for "since the very beginning"</ref>==
==Ab ovo<ref><!--9-->Latin for "since the very beginning"</ref>==


Before getting to the heart of the Masticationpedia treatment, a premise is appropriate, that mainly concerns two aspects of the social, scientific and clinical reality of the current and the immediately preceding era.
Antes de entrar en el meollo del tratamiento de la Masticationpedia, conviene una premisa, que atañe principalmente a dos aspectos de la realidad social, científica y clínica de la época actual e inmediatamente anterior.


In the last century, we witnessed exponential growth in technological and methodological "Innovations" specifically in dentistry<ref>{{cita libro  
En el último siglo asistimos a un crecimiento exponencial de las “Innovaciones” tecnológicas y metodológicas específicamente en odontología.<ref>{{cita libro  
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  | DOI = 10.1177/2380084419879391
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  }}</ref>; these innovations have in some way influenced decision-making strategies, opinions, schools of thought and axioms in order to improve quality of life, as stated in the "''Exposure Science in the 21st Century''"<ref>{{cita libro  
  }}</ref>; estas innovaciones han influido de alguna manera en las estrategias de toma de decisiones, opiniones, escuelas de pensamiento y axiomas con el fin de mejorar la calidad de vida, tal como se afirma en el “Exposición a la Ciencia en el Siglo XXI”<ref>{{cita libro  
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  }}</ref>. However, this exponential growth brings with it, implicitly, conceptual gray areas (in practical terms "side effects") which are sometimes underestimated, but which may call into question some Scientific Certainties or make them less absolute and more probabilistic.<ref>{{cita libro  
  }}</ref>. Sin embargo, este crecimiento exponencial trae consigo, implícitamente, zonas grises conceptuales (en términos prácticos "efectos secundarios") que a veces se subestiman, pero que pueden poner en entredicho algunas Certezas Científicas o hacerlas menos absolutas y más probabilísticas..<ref>{{cita libro  
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  | DOI = 10.1358/dot.2014.50.1.2076506
  | DOI = 10.1358/dot.2014.50.1.2076506
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  }}</ref>
  }}</ref>[[File:The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn.jpg|right|thumb|The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn]]
[[File:The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn.jpg|right|thumb|The phases of paradigm change according to Thomas Kuhn]]
Los dos aspectos sensibles de la realidad social, científica y clínica actual (que parecen contradecirse, pero como veremos al final de esta lectura serán complementarios) son el “Progreso de la Ciencia” según Kuhn y el “ Epistemología".
The two sensitive aspects of the current social, scientific and clinical reality (which seem to conflict with each other, but as we will see at the end of this reading will be complementary) are the "Progress of Science" according to Kuhn and the "Epistemology".


==Progress of Science according to Thomas Kuhn==
==Progreso de la ciencia según Thomas Kuhn==


'''Thomas Kuhn''' in his most famous work states that ''science cyclically passes through some phases indicative of its operation''.<ref>Thomas Samuel Kuhn (Cincinnati, 18 <!--18-->july 1922 – Cambridge, 17 <!--19-->june 1996) <!--20-->was an American philosopher of science.<br><!--21-->See Treccani, ''[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/thomas-samuel-kuhn/ Kuhn, Thomas Samuel]''. Wikipedia, ''[[:wikipedia:Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]]''.
Thomas Kuhn en su obra más famosa afirma que la ciencia pasa cíclicamente por unas fases indicativas de su funcionamiento.<ref>Thomas Samuel Kuhn (Cincinnati, 18 <!--18-->july 1922 – Cambridge, 17 <!--19-->june 1996) <!--20-->was an American philosopher of science.<br><!--21-->See Treccani, ''[http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/thomas-samuel-kuhn/ Kuhn, Thomas Samuel]''. Wikipedia, ''[[:wikipedia:Thomas Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]]''.
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  }}</ref> According to Kuhn, ''science is paradigmatic'', and the demarcation between science and pseudoscience can be traced back to the existence of a '''paradigm'''. The evolution of scientific progress is assimilated to ''a continuous curve which undergoes discontinuity in paradigm changes''.   
  }}</ref> Según Kuhn, la ciencia es paradigmática y la demarcación entre ciencia y pseudociencia se remonta a la existencia de un paradigma. La evolución del progreso científico se asimila a una curva continua que sufre discontinuidad en los cambios de paradigma.   


As a good problem solver, the scientist tries to solve these anomalies.
Como buen solucionador de problemas, el científico trata de resolver estas anomalías.


=== Kuhn's phases in Dentistry===
=== Las fases de Kuhn en Odontología.===


Kuhn, on the other hand, divides the evolution of a paradigm into five phases; this is a fundamental process for Masticationpedia, but to stay tuned with the project we will limit ourselves to describing the three most significant phases shared in the project and indicated in the index of the book:  
Kuhn, por su parte, divide la evolución de un paradigma en cinco fases; este es un proceso fundamental para Masticationpedia, pero para estar atentos al proyecto nos limitaremos a describir las tres fases más significativas compartidas en el proyecto e indicadas en el índice del libro:  


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* <u>'''''Phase 2'''''</u>, or the Normal Science<br>For example, in phase 2 of the Kuhn Paradigms, called '''Normal Science''', scientists are seen as problem solvers, who work to improve the agreement between the paradigm and nature. This phase, in fact, is based on a set of basic principles dictated by the paradigm, which are not questioned but which, indeed, are entrusted with the task of indicating the coordinates of the works to come. In this phase, the measuring instruments with which the experiments are made are developed, most of the scientific articles are produced and its results constitute significant growth in scientific knowledge. In the normal science phase both successes and failures will be achieved; the failures are called by Kuhn ''anomalies'', or ''events that go against the paradigm''.  
* '''Fase 2''', o la '''Ciencia normal''' Por ejemplo, en la fase 2 de los Paradigmas de Kuhn, llamada Ciencia Normal, los científicos son vistos como solucionadores de problemas, que trabajan para mejorar el acuerdo entre el paradigma y la naturaleza. Esta fase, en efecto, se asienta sobre un conjunto de principios básicos dictados por el paradigma, que no son cuestionados pero a los que, , se les encomienda la tarea de señalar las coordenadas de las obras por venir. En esta fase se desarrollan los instrumentos de medida con los que se realizan los experimentos, se produce la mayor parte de los artículos científicos y sus resultados constituyen un crecimiento significativo del conocimiento científico. En la fase científica normal se lograrán éxitos y fracasos; las fallas son llamadas por Kuhn anomalías, o eventos que van contra el paradigma.
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*<u>'''''Phase 4'''''</u>, or the '''Crisis of the Paradigm'''<br>As a consequence of the crisis, different paradigms will be created during this period. These new paradigms will, therefore, not arise from the results achieved by the previous theory, but rather from the abandonment of the pre-established schemes of the dominant paradigm. <br>Following this path, in Masticationpedia, the '''crisis of the masticatory rehabilitation paradigm''' will be discussed reviewing theories, theorems, axioms, schools of thought and the Research Diagnostic Criteria and then the focus will shift on phase 5.
*'''Fase 4''', o la '''Crisis del Paradigma''' Como consecuencia de la crisis, se crearán diferentes paradigmas durante este período. Estos nuevos paradigmas, por tanto, no surgirán de los resultados alcanzados por la teoría anterior, sino del abandono de los esquemas preestablecidos del paradigma dominante. Siguiendo este camino, en Masticationpedia se discutirá la crisis del paradigma de la rehabilitación masticatoria revisando teorías, teoremas, axiomas, escuelas de pensamiento y los Criterios de Diagnóstico de Investigación y luego el foco se trasladará a la fase 5.
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*<u>'''''Phase 5'''''</u>, or the '''Scientific Revolution'''<br>Phase 5 deals with the (scientific) revolution. In the period of extraordinary scientific activities, a discussion will open within the scientific community on which new paradigm to accept. But it will not necessarily be the most "true" or most efficient paradigm to come to the fore, but the one that will be able to capture the interest of a sufficient number of scientists and to gain the trust of the scientific community. <br>The paradigms that participate in this clash, according to Kuhn, share nothing, not even the bases and, therefore, are not comparable (they are "immeasurable"). The paradigm is chosen, as said, on socio-psychological or biological basis (young scientists replace older ones). The battle between paradigms will resolve the crisis, the new paradigm will be named and science will be brought back to Phase 1. <br>For the same principle of Phase 4, Masticationpedia will propose, in the chapter titled ''Extraordinary science'', a '''new paradigmatic model in the field of rehabilitation of the Masticatory System''' discussing its principles, motivations, clinical scientific experiences and, above all, a ''radical change'' in the field of medical diagnostics. This change is essentially based on '''System Inference''', rather than on Symptom Inference, giving mainly absolute value to the objectivity of the data.
*'''Fase 5''', o la '''Revolución Científica''' La fase 5 trata de la revolución (científica). En el período de actividades científicas extraordinarias, se abrirá una discusión dentro de la comunidad científica sobre qué nuevo paradigma aceptar. Pero no será necesariamente el paradigma más "verdadero" o más eficiente que salga a la luz, sino el que podrá captar el interés de un número suficiente de científicos y ganarse la confianza de la comunidad científica. Los paradigmas que participan en este choque, según Kuhn, no comparten nada, ni siquiera las bases y, por tanto, no son comparables (son "inconmensurables"). El paradigma se elige, como se dijo, sobre bases socio-psicológicas o biológicas (los científicos jóvenes reemplazan a los mayores). La batalla entre paradigmas resolverá la crisis, se nombrará el nuevo paradigma y la ciencia volverá a la Fase 1. Por el mismo principio de la Fase 4, Masticationpedia propondrá, en el capítulo titulado Ciencia extraordinaria, un nuevo modelo paradigmático en el campo de la rehabilitación del Sistema Masticatorio discutiendo sus principios, motivaciones, experiencias científicas clínicas y, sobre todo, un cambio radical en el campo del diagnóstico médico. Este cambio se basa esencialmente en la inferencia del sistema, en lugar de la inferencia de síntomas, lo que otorga principalmente un valor absoluto a la objetividad de los datos.
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It is almost obvious that Kuhnian scientific philosophy prefers disciplinarity, as an anomaly in the genomic paradigm will be noticed better by a geneticist than by a neurophysiologist. Now this concept would seem to be in contrast with the epistemological evolution of Science, so it is better to stop a minute upon it in detail.
Es casi obvio que la filosofía científica kuhniana prefiere la disciplinariedad, ya que un genetista notará mejor una anomalía en el paradigma genómico que un neurofisiólogo. Ahora bien, este concepto parecería estar en contraste con la evolución epistemológica de la Ciencia, por lo que es mejor detenerse un minuto en él en detalle.


==Epistemology==
==Epistemología==
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| width="250" align="right" |<small>''The black swan symbolizes one of the historical problems of epistemology: if all the swans we have seen so far are white, can we decide that all the swans are white?<br>Really?''</small>
| width="250" align="right" |<small>''El cisne negro simboliza uno de los problemas históricos de la epistemología: si todos los cisnes que hemos visto hasta ahora son blancos, ¿podemos decidir que todos los cisnes son blancos?''</small><small>''¿En serio?''</small>
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| align="center" |[[File:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|203px|center]]
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| width="250" |<small>''Kuhn used optical illusion to demonstrate how a paradigm shift can cause a person to see the same information in a completely different way: which animal is the one here aside?<br>Sure?''</small>
| width="250" |<small>''Kuhn usó la ilusión óptica para demostrar cómo un cambio de paradigma puede hacer que una persona vea la misma información de una manera completamente diferente: ¿qué animal es el que está a un lado?''</small><small>''¿Por supuesto?''</small>
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'''Epistemology''' (from the Greek ἐπιστήμη, ''epistème'', "certain knowledge" or "science", and λόγος, ''logos'', "speech") is that branch of philosophy which deals with the conditions under which scientific knowledge can be obtained and the methods for achieving such knowledge.<ref><!--43-->The term is believed to have been coined by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in his ''Institutes of Metaphysic'' (p.46), of 1854; <!--44-->see Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''[https://www.iep.utm.edu/ferrier/ James Frederick Ferrier (1808—1864)]''. [[:wikipedia:James Frederick Ferrier|Wikipedia]]</ref> The term specifically indicates that part of gnoseology which studies the foundations, validity and limits of scientific knowledge. In English-speaking countries, the concept of epistemology is instead mainly used as a synonym for gnoseology or knowledge theory — the discipline that deals with the study of knowledge.
'''La epistemología''' (del griego ἐπιστήμη, epistème, "cierto conocimiento" o "ciencia", y λόγος, logos, "discurso") es la rama de la filosofía que trata de las condiciones bajo las cuales se puede obtener el conocimiento científico y los métodos para lograrlo. conocimiento.<ref><!--43-->The term is believed to have been coined by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier in his ''Institutes of Metaphysic'' (p.46), of 1854; <!--44-->see Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''[https://www.iep.utm.edu/ferrier/ James Frederick Ferrier (1808—1864)]''. [[:wikipedia:James Frederick Ferrier|Wikipedia]]</ref> The term specifically indicates that part of gnoseology which studies the foundations, validity and limits of scientific knowledge. In English-speaking countries, the concept of epistemology is instead mainly used as a synonym for gnoseology or knowledge theory — the discipline that deals with the study of knowledge.


Incidentally, the basic problem of epistemology today, as in Hume’s time, remains that of verifiability.<ref>[[:wikipedia:David Hume|David Hume]] (<!--47-->Edimburgh, 7 <!--48-->may 1711 – <!--49-->Edimburgh, 25 <!--50-->august 1776) <!--51-->was a Scottish philosopher. He is considered the third and perhaps the most radical of the British Empiricists, after the Englishman John Locke and the Anglo-Irish George Berkeley.</ref><ref>{{cita libro  
Incidentally, the basic problem of epistemology today, as in Hume’s time, remains that of verifiability.<ref>[[:wikipedia:David Hume|David Hume]] (<!--47-->Edimburgh, 7 <!--48-->may 1711 – <!--49-->Edimburgh, 25 <!--50-->august 1776) <!--51-->was a Scottish philosopher. He is considered the third and perhaps the most radical of the British Empiricists, after the Englishman John Locke and the Anglo-Irish George Berkeley.</ref><ref>{{cita libro  
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